---

CONTENTS:

NEWS HIGHLIGHTS OF THE WEEK:

1. World
2. Africa
3. Americas
4. Asia Pacific
5. Europe
6. Middle East
7. South Asia
8. Cyberterrorism and Information Warfare
9. Finance
10 Human Rights
11. Law and Legal Issues
12. Transportation
13. Weapons of Mass Destruction
14. Recently Published

FEATURE ARTICLE:
South Africa: Past, Present and Future, Part I

NEWS HIGHLIGHTS OF THE WEEK

---

1. World

The UN examined the role of corporations in countries affected by conflict and ways to ensure that the economic dimensions of armed conflict are not underestimated. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/sc8058.doc.htm
http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/sgsm9256.doc.htm

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) both cite US fiscal deficits as a threat to the world economy, having a serious impact on global interest rates and economic growth. The IMF's full World Economic Outlook report will be released next week.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has developed The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture to address the need for global exchange and cooperation regarding these crucial resources. http://www.fao.org/ag/cgrfa/itpgr.htm

Insurance broker Aon's Global Terrorism Risk Map has placed India as the most dangerous to do business, of international interest due to the level of outsourcing.

Information uncovered during the investigation into Pakistan's distribution of nuclear technology reveals that North Korea had three nuclear weapons five years ago. The report cannot be confirmed, but may prompt China to increase their efforts to mediate between the US and North Korean, both seemingly equally intransigent in reaching a solution to the nuclear standoff.

---

2. Africa

"The HIV/AIDS pandemic and Africa's wars are mutually re-enforcing trends that seriously undermine efforts to advance development and democracy on the continent" is the finding of a new report by the International Crisis Group. http://www.crisisweb.org/home/index.cfm?l=1&id=2606
The impact of HIV/AIDS on women and children was the topic of a national Intelligence Council workshop. http://www.cia.gov/nic/NIC_2020_2004_03_16_intro.html

The African Growth and Opportunity Act has begun to pay off with signs of increased trade between the US and Africa. Key provisions of the law are due to expire in September and hearings are underway in the US for an extension. Note " African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) begins to pay off" in World Trade, May 2004 http://www.worldtrademag.com/ and the World Bank's review http://econ.worldbank.org/files/34737_wps3262.pdf

Botswana has dealt another blow to the global campaign to eradicate polio as it faces the first outbreak of the disease in 13 years. Investigations are underway to see how the virus jumped from northern Nigeria, where Muslim clerics in some states have banned vaccinations, to the south.

In eastern Democratic Republic of Congo at least 25 people were hacked to death by unknown attackers who also burned down 150 homes and destroyed a bridge.

Ivory Coast opposition groups have agreed to reopen negotiations with the government.

Liberia's disarmament process has started again. It was postponed in February after a disagreement over how much money former combatants would receive for weapons. Some 40,000 are expected to disarm, for about $300 .

Namibia's land redistribution plans have been challenged in a new study warning that radical measures could undermine investment and economic growth. http://www.ippr.org.na/Opinion%20Pieces/opinion_13.htm

Nigerian protestors in the oil-rich delta have forced the closure of a Shell oil pumping facility. Around 200 civilians have set up camp in an effort to convince the company to rebuild its only external road. In the same region, Nigerian soldiers killed two gunmen, probably linked to a criminal gang, in a speedboat who attempted to steal fuel barges anchored at the Shell compound.

South African elections have given a landslide victory to the African national Congress party, winning just under 70 percent. The opposition Democratic Alliance received 12 percent and the Inkatha Freedom Party got seven percent.

In Sudan, the 45-day ceasefire agreement has not stopped attacks by government-backed Arab militias and other violence. Political talks to reach a settlement will begin on April 20.

Ugandan President Museveni has offered again to negotiate with the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) rebels if they will agree a ceasefire. The UN Security Council, meanwhile, issued a statement calling for a peaceful solution and unrestricted aid access.

---

3. Americas

Last weekend in Brazil was dominated by a turf war between rival gangs trying to dominate the Rocinha favela (shanty town) and its lucrative ($3 million per week) drug market. At least twelve people were killed, including the chief drug lord Luciano Barbosa da Silva ("Lulu"). More than a thousand police were brought in to help end the violence; their presence could be necessary for some time. Cinta Larga Indians in a northern Amazonian reservation attacked illegal diamond miners, killing up to 35.

Colombian troops shot dead five people, including two children, mistaking the peasant farmers for guerillas.

Cuba has agreed to purchase US food and agriculture products worth more than $100 million and has tabled a resolution at the UN Human Rights Commission meeting requesting an investigation into conditions at the US detention center in Guantanamo Bay.

In Mexico, the governor of Morelos state dismissed the entire police force of 552 after finding their leadership had protected a drugs gang. Federal police have taken over security.

In the US, the 9-11 Commission continued hearings with testimony from the law enforcement and intelligence communities. http://www.9-11commission.gov/hearings/hearing10.htm
One of the issues raised after 9-11 was of communications interoperability among all levels of emergency response. The General Accounting Office reports that this will take years to achieve, in part due to a lack of executive commitment and support and due to a lack of interagency cooperation. http://www.gao.gov/cgi-bin/getrpt?GAO-04-494
In response to growing public pressure, President Bush held a press conference http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/04/20040413-20.html whose content was subsequently clarified by Press Secretary McClellan's press briefing http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2004/04/20040416-6.html

---

4. Asia Pacific

Australia's top army intelligence analyst Lieutenant Colonel Lance Collins made serious allegations regarding defense intelligence and related issues, first in December 2000. Issues raised include failures of intelligence from the violence in East Timor and the absence of WMD in Iraq, as well as producing intelligence that is tainted by political objectives. Investigations by Inspector General of Intelligence Bill Blick and Redress of Grievance with the Army investigator Captain Martin Toohey reached different conclusions and recommendations. Last week, the government released the legal advice it had received regarding the latter and has rejected calls for an independent commission. http://www.defence.gov.au/publications/Brown_Report.pdf

Burmese authorities have released opposition National League for Democracy's chairman and deputy chairman, who had been detained under house arrest for almost a year.

China is offering all 1.3 billion people free HIV/AIDS testing.

Philippine President Arroyo has approved the closure to the entire southern province of Basilan in order to recapture the 53 prisoners who escaped from jail last weekend, including at least eight suspected Abu Sayyaf militants. Abu Sayyaf has been blamed for kidnapping three crewmembers from a Malaysian tugboat.

---

5. Europe

European governments rejected an apparent offer of truce from Osama bin Laden in exchange for pulling their troops out of Muslim countries.

Danish Prime Minister Rasmussen has directed the defense minister to declassify its intelligence assessment of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction after portions of the classified report had been leaked more than a year ago.

Olympics game organizer Peter Ueberroth and Greek Minister for public order Voulgarakis both say that the games in Athens, Greece will be free from terrorism.

Hungarian police arrested three men suspected of planning to blow up the new Holocaust memorial in Budapest.

Irish and British governments have received the first Independent Monitoring Commission report on paramilitary activities. Parliament will see the report on Tuesday and it will be published at some point thereafter.

Italian police arrested 15 people suspected of membership in the far-right political movement Forza Nuova, (New Force) in connection with a series of assaults and intimidation. A large police raid led to the arrest of 29 suspected Mafia of the Sacra Corona Unita.

In Kosovo, UN peacekeepers have arrested more than 260 people, including alleged leader Avdyl Mushkolaj, for the March riots that killed 19. In northern Kosovo, three UN police were killed in a shootout and eleven injured; the cause is under investigation.

Macedonians will go to the polls again for a presidential run-off since none of the contenders reached the required 50 percent mark, although Prime Minister Crvenkovski reached nearly 43 percent.

In Chechnya, Russia, seven policemen and five soldiers were killed in two separate attacks blamed on separatist rebels.

Spanish authorities have arrested three more Madrid bombing suspects and a judge has freed six that have now been found to have not played a role. Authorities believe the train bombings were financed by drug sales.

Spain is pulling its 1,300 troops out of Iraq, possibly within the next few weeks. The new Prime Minister Zapatero said there is no sign that his demand for a UN mandate would be met.

In the UK, the Home Office has admitted that nearly 200 people applying for jobs were wrongly identified as having criminal records when their personal details were similar or identical to another record in the Criminal Records Bureau.

The Northern Ireland parade season has begun peacefully. In Maghaberry jail, a number of loyalist prisoners took off their clothes to protest their treatment, including daily strip searches.

---

6. Middle East

In the Gaza Strip, a border policeman was killed and three Israelis wounded by a Palestinian suicide bomber. The attack was claimed by Hamas and

Hamas leader Abdul Aziz Rantissi was killed by an Israeli helicopter missile attack. His son and a bodyguard also died and several were injured. At his funeral, less than a month after he replaced Hamas founder Sheikh Yassin, the massive crowd expressed rage and frustration. Israel has promised to continue assassinations.

Palestinian rage was strengthened by the news earlier in the week that US President Bush had backed Israeli Prime Minister Sharon's plan for unilateral disengagement from Gaza. The proposal would allow the military to maintain access and to control all borders, leading to comparisons with South Africa's apartheid-era Bantustans (black homeland enclaves). Other terms include exchanging settlement property for compensation as long as no housing is provided to Palestinian leaders or families of militants; and withdrawal from four isolated West Bank settlements but maintaining its other presence and the barrier construction. In addition, President Bush indicated he agreed there would be no right of return for Palestinian refugees and that he would not insist on the 1967 borders. Both the US and Israel say this does not presage a final settlement. In the rest of the world, most governments and people have united in their condemnation over the bilateral agreement that involved neither Palestinians nor the other authors of the "roadmap for peace".

Senior Iranian diplomat Khalil Naimi, first secretary of the embassy, was assassinated in Iraq. Iran has played a crucial mediation role in the recent insurgency.

The insurgency in Iraq has forced the US to expand operations geographically and with people, and caused the partial collapse of the Iraqi security forces means to replace them but who have refused to defend occupation authorities against their fellow countrymen. Some of the hostages taken in the last two weeks have been freed but others have been taken both by criminals and by insurgents. There is a tense standoff amid ongoing negotiations in the holy city of Najaf, where Moqtada Sadr and his militants are holding out. Fierce fighting is taking place in the west near the Syrian border. Spain is pulling its troops out of Iraq, possibly within the next few weeks.

Jordan reports that investigations and arrests over the past two weeks have prevented a massive terrorist attack including a chemical bomb that could have killed tens of thousands.

In Saudi Arabia, suspected militants killed five policemen in one attack, and in a later attack on a patrol car another was killed and one wounded.

In the West Bank, an Islamic Jihad member was killed and two injured as the explosives they were working with accidentally went off. A 17-year-old was killed with rubber bullets fired by Israeli Defense Forces during an anti-fence demonstration, and several were injured. The UN International Meeting on the Impact of the Construction of the Wall in the occupied Palestinian Territory, Including In and Around East Jerusalem, says that the lack of dialog between the two communities makes international assistance essential. http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2004/gapal953.doc.htm

The Palestinian Human Rights Monitoring Group reports that 11 percent of Palestinians killed during the intifada were killed by other Palestinians and that violence permeates all aspects of society. http://www.phrmg.org/intrafada.htm

---

7. South Asia

In Afghanistan, fighting with Taleban remnants killed more than twenty people in three days, including policemen, government employees, and civilians. Taliban also kidnapped three men, including an intelligence chief and two soldiers. Despite continued insecurity, the US has said that following the September elections it may reduce the number of troops.

India's Supreme Court ordered the retrial of the case in which twelve Muslims were burned to death by a Hindu mob in Gujarat in 2002. In Tripura, separatists of the National Liberation Front of Tripura have declared a ceasefire.

Nepal detained and released fifty journalists demonstrating against a ban on public assemblies. During the week protests continued, leading to more than 100 arrests, including the former prime minister, Sher Bahadur Deuba, who has since been released.

Pakistani police in Karachi arrested six more alleged members of Harkat ul-Mujahideen al-Almi that has been blames for attempted assassination of President Musharraf and two bombings.

Sri Lanka's Tamil Tigers main force has defeated renegade commander Colonel Karuna, whose forces have dispersed. Karuna has reportedly killed a rebel agent linked to the 1991 assassination of Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi. The Tigers and the Sri Lankan army held their first meeting since the split in the Tigers. They have agreed to uphold the 2-year-old ceasefire.

---

8. Cyberterrorism and Information Warfare

Microsoft issues four security bulletins, three rated critical and one important, addressing a large number of new security holes including some that could permit remote control of a computer.

The scale of the problem of growing cyber attacks is illustrated by two reports. Earthlink reports that the average computer has 28 spyware programs. http://www.earthlink.net/spyaudit/press/ while the financial services industry is increasingly alarmed by the rise of phishing attacks. MessageLabs reports it stopped 215,643 phisher-emails last month compared to 279 in September 2003. http://www.messagelabs.com Celent also has new reports on Phishing and Check Fraud http://www.celent.com/PressReleases/20040406/NewBankingReports.htm

India is considering changing the search and seizure guidelines to make it easier to gather and present digital information in court, for cyber crimes and financial investigations.

The National Cyber Security Partnership's Corporate Governance Task Force called for voluntary industry, non-profit and educational institutions to incorporate information security governance into corporate governance policies and management. http://www.cyberpartnership.org/041204.html

The Institute for Security Technology Studies of Dartmouth College has published the "Law Enforcement Tools and Technologies for Investigating Cyber Attacks: Gap Analysis Report" http://www.ists.dartmouth.edu/TAG/gap_analysis.htm

---

9. Finance

Spanish authorities believe the Madrid train bombings were financed by drug sales.

The US Treasury continued efforts to recover Iraqi assets, including designation of eight front companies and five associated individuals, with a recommendation that the UN also designates them. http://www.treas.gov/press/releases/js1333.htm

The Washington Post reports that US bank regulators are preparing to fine Riggs Bank for not reporting suspicious transactions. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A20942-2004Apr17.html

A US federal judge in Colorado has ruled that the law requiring licensing of money transmitters is unconstitutionally vague. http://www.co.uscourts.gov/opinions/ltb_03cr0306.pdf

---

10. Human Rights

The UN Commission on Human Rights adopted resolutions to combat defamation of religion and on the right to development. http://www.unog.ch/news2/documents/newsen/cn04045e.htm

The US Department of Homeland Security announced new guidelines to prevent lengthy unregulated detention of foreign nationals, such as that following the September 11 attacks. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A9311-2004Apr13.html

Colombian trade union Sinaltrainal will file an amended lawsuit against Coca-Cola alleging their involvement in the death of union members at its Colombian bottling plants.

Belgian and Dutch ports will begin allowing British immigration officials to investigate passengers at their terminals to try to stop illegal immigrants before they cross. In the US, authorities are investigating how 130 illegal immigrants boarded three domestic commercial flights before they were arrested; they apparently used false identification documents.

---

11. Law and Legal Issues

Stanley Currey and William Shaw appeared in British court for conspiracy to cause an explosion with intent to endanger life after they allegedly planted a car bomb.

Guadalupe Flores Guimenez was arrested in the US, after making false terrorist allegations, for using a false identity. http://sandiego.fbi.gov/2004/guimene.htm

Izhar ul-Haque is the first person charged under Australia's new anti-terrorist laws. He is accused of explosives and weapons training with Lashkar-e-Toiba, but he had been there eight months before the organization was banned.

Sami Omar Al-Hussayen is on trial in the US for allegedly managing an international network of web sites that helped to finance a number of terrorist organizations. http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/pr/2004/March/04_crm_137.htm

Slobodan Milosevic has compiled a list of more than 1600 people he would like to call as defense witnesses in his war crimes trial before the international tribunal in the Hague. Lord Iain Bonomy will oversee the balance of the case; he is replacing Richard May who resigned for health reasons.

Malik Tasaddaq has been arrested in Pakistan. He is suspected of membership in Lashkar-e-Jhangvi and connected with the kidnapping and murder of journalist Daniel Pearl.

James Yee, a US army chaplain originally accused of spying and other serious charges, has now had all charges and convictions dropped, including a reprimand for adultery and adult materials on his office computer. http://www.southcom.mil/pa/Media/Releases/PR040319Yee.pdf

---

12. Transportation

Singapore has set up a Public Transport Security Committee to investigate security solutions for train and bus transit systems. In the US, federal officials will begin testing railway passenger screening technologies next month.

US Customs and Border Protection announced the dates that advance electronic transmission of inbound rail cargo data will be required under the Trade Act 2002 cargo security rules. http://www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/newsroom/press_releases/04122004.xml

American Airlines has admitted providing passenger data to the Transportation Security Administration (TSA). TSA subsequently shared the data with four contractor firms. TSA is investigating the situation for evaluation by the new Chief Privacy Officer. Meanwhile, data sharing between the EU and the US remains at issue. The US is threatening fines and loss of landing rights if passenger data is limited, while the European Parliament is considering whether to challenge the existing data sharing agreement in court.

---

13. Weapons of Mass Destruction

The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has warned that nuclear materials are being removed from Iraq, including entire buildings and scrap, raising fears of contamination and terrorists. http://www.un.org/Docs/journal/asp/ws.asp?m=S/2004/285

China is expected to join the Nuclear Suppliers Group, which controls export of nuclear materials and technology, next month.

"Old Weapons, New Terror Worries" reviews threats presented by the nuclear weapons network left behind the former Soviet Union. http://www.csmonitor.com/2004/0415/p06s02-woeu.html

University of Arizona researchers are investigating "Nanoscale beads sniff tough-to-find toxins" Electronic Engineering Times, April 12, 2004 http://www.eetimes.com/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=18900842

---

14. Recently Published

Jagdish N. Bhagwati, "In defense of Globalization" Oxford University Press'

Peter Chalk and William Rosenau "Confronting the 'Enemy Within': Security Intelligence, the Police, and Counterterrorism in Four Democracies" Rand http://www.rand.org/publications/MG/MG100

Jerry Glazebrook and Nick Nicholson, "Executive Protection Specialist Handbook" 2nd edition, Varro Press, http://www.varropress.com

Edward Said "Humanism and Democratic Criticism" Columbia University Press

J. Samuel Walker, "Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective" University of California Press

Bob Woodward, "Plan of Attack" Simon and Schuster

---

FEATURE ARTICLE: South Africa: Past, Present and Future, Part I

South Africa is one of the most diverse countries in the world. Its stock exchange is among the world's ten largest. It has the richest economy in Africa and one of the leading international rugby teams. Indeed, the 1995 World Cup marks one of the high points of reconciliation in a country that had been rent asunder by racial divisions. When the Springboks won, Nelson Mandela put on the Number 6 shirt of the team captain, white Afrikaner Francois Pienaar, and they embraced in a moment that seemed to erase centuries of colonial strife. The remarkable legacy of Mandela, de Klerk, and South Africa's road to reconciliation was demonstrated again this week, with the country's third multi-racial national elections.

The success story that is South Africa is a powerful example for us all. To understand its significance, this 3-part series begins with a brief history to show how far it has come, then proceeds to review current events. The series ends with a review of the prospects and challenges in the future.

South Africa is on the southernmost tip of the African continent, bordering Botswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, Namibia, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe and includes Marion Island and Prince Edward Island. It is rich in mineral resources including gold, diamonds, chromium, antimony, coal, iron ore, manganese, nickel, phosphates, tin, uranium, platinum, copper, vanadium, salt and natural gas.

The earliest archaeological remains in South Africa date from 50,000 BC. Evidence of San hunter-gatherers dates from 14,000 BC. Their descendants today (the San sometimes called "bushmen") live in the Kalahari Desert, still speaking an ancient "click" language. Some of the San began herding sheep and cattle around 500 BC and called themselves the Khoi. Early Dutch settlers later called their descendants "Hottentots". The Khoikhoi expanded outwards along the fertile southern Cape and began to develop larger settlements and associated political structures, and traded throughout southern Africa. Meanwhile, the drying of the Sahara slowly moved other populations to the south, bringing in Bantu-speaking populations of farmers, with large herds of cattle. Their descendants make up the overwhelming majority of the present population.

In South Africa today, there are 11 official languages: Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Pedi, Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu

Europeans began to appear in the late 15th century. The Portuguese established the first trade routes but the English and Dutch challenged their monopoly in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The Dutch East India Company was the first to annex land a build a base, establishing their presence in 1652 with 80 staff and a fort. Their subsequent actions both decimated the local populations and laid the foundation for racial stratification.

The Dutch, unable to convince the local population to work under harsh conditions and low wages, began to import slaves to meet their local labor requirements. They also began to promote local Dutch settlement. Their growth and demands for more land led to a series of wars. In particular, it led to conflict between Khoikhoi and the Dutch burghers. The first attempt to expel the Dutch was in 1659. Conflict continued until 1713 when the Dutch brought smallpox to the Cape, killing 90 percent of the local, previously unexposed, population. The semi-migrant farmers that remained, a mixture of Dutch, German and French ancestry, were called the Trekboers, or Boers, later called the Afrikaner.

Continued population growth and slave imports led to pressure on the land, economic hardship, opposition to the Dutch East India Company, and a series of frontier wars. The Trekboers first attempted to establish an independent republic apart from the Company in 1795 but their effort ended with a British takeover. After the 1802 Treaty of Amiens that ended the European war, the land was returned to the Dutch but Britain seized it again in 1806 and in 1814, exchange for about 2 million pounds, the Dutch abandoned their land claim.

The British colonial authorities continued discriminatory legislation and did not end slavery until the 1830s, in a series of actions that provided few rights to Blacks and engendered great hostility among the Boers. Boers began to pack up and move inland in what was later called the "Great Trek". This again led to conflict with the native populations. By mid-century, two states had been formed: the Orange Free State between the Orange and Vaal rivers and the South African Republic in what later constituted the Transvaal. In addition, there were two British colonies, in Natal and the Cape Colony. To achieve this, the British annexed huge swathes of property from the local populations. Separation of blacks from whites and segregated political control were largely in place.

Diamonds were discovered in 1867 and gold in 1886. The British annexed both and the wealth quickly made the area the most dominant on the continent. Thousands of workers were brought from all over Africa to labor in the mines. In turn, this led to new legislation that segregated society, restricted movement, and established a separate system of justice.

New British settlers soon outnumbered the Boers, leading to increased tensions. Economic tensions as wealth became increasingly concentrated in British hands combined with political tensions since only white males who had lived in South Africa for at least seven years were allowed to vote. The British sent in troops. The South African Republic and the Orange Free State declared war in October 1899. 90,000 Afrikaners fought a British army that eventually approached 500,000 men. The British adopted a scorched earth policy, destroyed more than 30,000 farms, and put Afrikaner women and children in concentration camps where more than 25,000 died. The war ended in 1902 with a peace agreement designed to forever break the back of the Boers, but conceded that there would be no political equality between blacks and whites.

After the war, the economy was greatly depressed and the British realized they would never make up a majority of the population so negotiated a new constitution. It created a unitary state by uniting the former British colonies of the Cape and Natal and the Boer republics of Transvaal and the Orange Free State. It established a British-style parliamentary system; left the black vote up to each state; established Dutch and English as the official languages; and provided for the future incorporation of other territories.

Segregation was now the order of the day. From 1910 to 1948, racial discrimination received increasing levels of official sanction that led to significant decreases in the ability of black Africans to participate in the economy and virtually eliminated political participation. In 1913, only blacks living in Cape Province were allowed to buy land outside reserves. Two World Wars and economic dislocation also increased divisions within the white community. War production led to a massive influx of blacks into cities, where they soon outnumbered whites and threatened the whole idea of segregation. At the same time, blacks became more politically active. The Native National Congress (later the ANC) was founded in 1912 and black trade unions were very active. The secret Broederbond (brotherhood) was established in 1918 to advance Afrikaner causes.

The National Party won the 1948 election. They immediately adopted the policy of apartheid (separateness). The 1950 Population Registration Act required all residents be classified as white, colored, or native (later called Bantu) people. Indians, not recognized as permanent inhabitants in 1950, were included under the category "Asian" in 1959. People were classified primarily on the basis of their "community acceptability" and later amendments stressed "appearance" in order to prevent of light-colored blacks "passing" as whites. The act also provided for the compilation of a population register for the whole country and for the issuing of identity cards. Other legislation provided geographic, social and political separation and forbade racial interactions. Legislation provided for separate resources that were not equal. To enforce these measures, the a full-fledged police state was constructed, beginning with the 1950 Suppression of Communism Act and continuing with more and more repressive powers.

A campaign of civil disobedience began but establishing censorship, banning public meetings, restrictions on movements, arbitrary arrests, and torture quickly made this impossible. The Sharpeville massacre of 1960 was the turning point. After 70 black demonstrators were killed and the ANC banned, Nelson Mandela established a new military wing for the ANC and began a sabotage campaign.

Next week, we look at how apartheid was finally defeated and the remarkable way in which its violent legacy has been restrained.

Further Reading:

---

HOW TO CONTACT US:

Please contact us with your questions or comments by sending email to .

We look forward to hearing from you.
Editorial Team
TerrorismCentral
All Rights Reserved. Copyright © 2004 by TerrorismCentral.