CONTENTS:

NEWS HIGHLIGHTS OF THE WEEK:

1. World
2. Africa
3. Americas
4. Asia Pacific
5. Europe
6. Middle East
7. South Asia
8. Cyberterrorism and Information Warfare
9. Finance
10 Human Rights
11. Law and Legal Issues
12. Narco-terrorism
13. Transportation
14. Weapons of Mass Destruction
15. Recently Published

FEATURE ARTICLE:
The Algerian Connection (Part I)

1. World

It is rare that a peace movement has significant impact before war has begun, but international protests at the weekend show how seriously people are taking the threat of war in Iraq. Demonstrations began in Japan then were held in Pakistan, Syria, Egypt, Bahrain, Russia, France, the UK, Mexico, and Argentina. More than 50,000 gathered in Washington DC, with other peace rallied in San Francisco and other US cities. These mass demonstrations have been supported behind the scenes as leaders from the Arab world are trying to find a peaceful political solution within the region.

A different category of protest has risen as the result of new US immigration rules. (See Human Rights, below.) Human rights is the reason for diminished support for the “war on terrorism” according to Human Rights Watch World Report 2003 (http://www.hrw.org/wr2k3). They way that “Terrorists violate basic human rights principles because they target civilians. But the United Stated undermines those principles when it overlooks human rights abuses by anti-terror allies....” and Executive Director Kenneth Roth says “...Washington has so much power today that when it flouts human rights standards, it damages the human rights cause worldwide”.

On another front, North Korea announced it would pull out of the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and resume ballistic missile tests. Their bellicose position has forced the US to agree to open discussions. It is still unclear whether North Korea had engaged in a uranium enrichment program or whether this was a translation error, but it is clear that in the face of a mounting humanitarian crisis the North Koreans are prepared to use all weapons at their disposal, including generating revenue through the sale of fissile material.

At the same time, the manufactured crisis in Iraq escalates as does the build-up of troops from the US and UK. UN weapons inspectors continue their investigations and have asked for more cooperation from Iraq, particularly given the discovery of documents related to nuclear testing and unarmed chemical containers attached to missiles. Pressure grows on the US to provide evidence, go to war, or pull out the massing
forces.

2. Africa

A year after the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) was launched its momentum has slowed. The BBC’s Barnaby Philips highlights four reasons for this: money, Zimbabwe, peer review, and terrorism. See his article “Problems thwart Africa’s big plan” at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/266493.stm

In Burundi, fighting involving the army and purported rebel groups continues; most recently killing ten during an ambush against a convoy of buses, but plans for an African peacekeeping force are also proceeding.

Central African Republic is a diamond-smuggling hub according to a new report (http://action.web.ca/home/pac/attach/car_e.pdf) that sites close ties between arms dealers and diamond traders between DR Congo and CAR and says there is need for independent review and monitoring to prevent continued smuggling.

Democratic Republic of Congo rebels of the Movement for the Liberation of Congo (MLC) have denied being involved in acts of cannibalism and other gross violations of human rights as has been claimed by UN investigators and others. The UN Security Council has called on all parties to abide by the peace agreements that have been signed.

After four months of conflict in Ivory Coast, the government and three rebel groups have undertaken peace talks under a shaky ceasefire. President Gbagbo has not joined the other leaders in Paris, France, and there seems to be little common ground among the parties, but talks are continuing.

In Madagascar, a bomb went off at the ambassador’s residence, but there were no injuries. It is the first such incident in Madagascar and responsibility for the attack is unknown.

Fraud in Nigeria continues to rear its head. The International Monetary Fund has warned against proposals to establish a common West African currency for fear that Nigeria’s involvement would undermine the effort. Meanwhile, a massive electoral fraud plan was uncovered as Nigerian police arrested three men preparing to print some five million false voting cards.

The UN mission and local police in Sierra Leone stopped an attempted break-in at a military barracks. Stability in the country is still a ways off, not lease because of the legacy of the ten-year civil war. See “We’ll Kill You If You Cry” by Human Rights Watch, http://hrw.org/reports/2003/sierraleone/

Somalia’s peace talks are continuing slowly now well into their fourth month. The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs has reported on one of the tragedies in Somalia: the plight of children smuggled out of the country in the hope of a better life only to fall into the hands of human traffickers. (http://www.irinnews.org/webspecials/Somalichildren/default.asp)

In Uganda, rebel leader Joseph Kony of the Lord’s Resistance Army has offered direct talks with the President. In the northwest, clashes between rival tribesmen over cattle theft left at least 390 dead.

Security in Zimbabwe continues to deteriorate. Rumors that President Robert Mugabe would step down to be replaced by a power-sharing government have been strongly denied. Although the armed forces commander, General Zvinavashe, has confirmed his support for Mugabe, he has admitted the country is in crisis and called for a task force to investigate solutions.

3. Americas

Canadians are following with interest the hearing into the deaths of four soldiers at the hands of American pilots. Evidence at the military trial has questioned the routine practice in the US military of providing amphetamines and tranquilizers to manage troops while on duty. Domestically, air security in Canada has come under fire in a Senate investigation that uncovered a long list of shortcomings.

Colombian officials continued their crackdown against militants by arresting more than 60 suspects in Medellin. Suspected rebels of the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) exploded a car bomb that killed four adults and a three-year-old boy; and ambushed an army convoy, killing eight. The week ended with four people shot dead at the Bogota airport and the massacre of 16 unarmed civilians, but responsibility for the attack is unknown. The US State Department has suspended funding to an air force unit for their failure to investigate a 1998 bombing that killed 18 civilians and is considered one of Colombia’s most notorious human rights abuses. US Special Forces have joined an army unit to help protect a key oil pipeline.

In Peru, 300 sugar plantation workers armed with guns and machetes attacked 40 squatters camping on unused land, killing up to 15.

In the US, troop build-ups in the Middle East expand, with call-ups of tens of thousands of reservists. This has had an unprecedented impact on the individuals and their families. For the first time, nearly 20 percent of reservists are women. At the same time, public opinion is strongly opposed to a unilateral war in Iraq and has expressed that not only with large peace demonstrations (see World, above) but also with local resolutions. Last week, Chicago joined more than two dozen other cities to resolve that the situation in Iraq be handled through the UN.

For the first time, the space shuttle is carrying an Israeli fighter pilot. Security around the shuttle flight has been very tight.

In Berkeley, California, a quotation by anarchist Emma Goldman (dead since 1940) was removed from a fund-raising letter when officials thought it could be construed as opposition to war in Iraq. After consideration, the quotation will remain.

In New York City, public hearings on the proposed World Trade Center designs have opened.

Venezuela’s economy contracted by 40 percent in the first quarter due to the political unrest, strikes, and lost oil output. In the continued conflict, President Hugo Chavez is using soldiers loyal to him to control dissident police officers. Troops also seized a local Coca-Cola bottling plant and a beer maker and, in a Robin Hood style gesture, began distributing the products to the people. Further food seizures are possible.

4. Asia Pacific

Australia, China and South Korea have offered to help mediate the burgeoning nuclear crisis in North Korea.

Cambodia and the UN ended their first round of talks regarding establishment of a war crimes tribunal to try Khmer Rouge leaders. The next round of talks will take place in Cambodia.

In China, a bomb inside a hotel killed at least five. Responsibility for the attack was unknown.

Indonesia’s Aceh province is still experiencing apparent breaches of the ceasefire. Peace mediators have called for restraint on both sides as they investigate the latest attacks.

In the Philippines, army troops say they killed at least 18 suspected members of the militant Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). The MILF denies that any rebels were killed, but claim to have killed three soldiers. The communist rebel New People’s Army (NPA) has issued a reminder that foreign companies must pay their revolutionary taxes to the NPA or face reprisals. (It remains to be seen whether their efforts at extortion will be more effective than the government’s attempts to combat rampant tax evasion.) The Abu Sayyaf killed three soldiers in a fight south of Manila.

5. Europe

The European Union has implemented a database of asylum-seeker fingerprints called EURODAC to crosscheck people to ensure they do not apply for asylum in multiple countries. This system does not solve the problem of differential treatment of refugees from one country to another.

Cypriots united to demonstrate in favor of unity. Public support for the UN’s reunification plan is not shared by Turkish Cypriot leader, Denktash.

French police removed a partial explosive device from the Sacre Coeur basilica and are now investigating its source.

Italian police seized a large chemical shipment bound for Libya on suspicion they would be used for weapons. Italian anti-war sentiment has increased following reports of a huge US munitions dump that supplied ordnance to the 1990 Gulf War and actions in Serbia. (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,3-542379,00.html)

Germany has banned Islamic militant group Hizb ut-Tahrir (Party of Liberation) for violent anti-Semitism.

Russia has been awarded a new oil deal with Iraq. This follows the dissolution of the Lukoil contract last month.

In the Chechen republic of Russia, four soldiers and one rebel were killed in fighting, and four others were killed in land mine explosions.

Spanish authorities have dismantled a huge money-laundering ring.

Swiss police defused a small explosive found near a conference center.

Turkish officials, still insisting they will not allow use of its facilities for a war in Iraq without UN backing, has allowed US officials to survey military sites as part of military operations.

Diplomats in the UK completed a conference on Palestinian reform, even though the Palestinian delegation was restricted from attending by the Israeli government and could only participate through video link or phone.

In Manchester, England, a police officer was stabbed to death by a suspect in custody during a counter-terrorism investigation related to the discovery of ricin in London last week.

Extra security, including air monitoring, has been ordered for the London Underground as a precaution against an anticipated chemical attack.

In Northern Ireland, a firebomb left by the Continuity IRA was defused. CIRA and other dissident groups have threatened new attacks will follow. The loyalist Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF) has pulled out of decommissioning talks.

6. Middle East

A conference on Palestinian reform was held successfully in the UK even though the Palestinian delegation was restricted from attending by the Israeli government and could only participate through video link or phone. Discussions centered on progress of reform and on the basis of a two-party solution to begin building peace in the region. Israeli Prime Minister Arial Sharon has said these discussions should not be taken seriously. The international community, however, has rallied behind the efforts of the Quartet.

In the occupied Gaza Strip, a Palestinian was killed during a troop operation. Two Palestinian teenagers were killed when an Israeli helicopter missed their targeted Hamas activists. Two young people were killed as they ran towards a bus after it had been attacked with grenades. killing one Israeli. Both attackers were killed.

Iran is featured in an Economist survey published January 18: “God’s rule, or man’s?” Iran closed two independent newspapers following conservative protests against a political cartoon.

A UN report on the Interim Force in Lebanon recommends that the mandate be continued for another six months to help control the volatile situation in the region.

Libya’s Colonel Qaddafi is profiled in an article by Scott Anderson, “Remember This Evildoer? Qaddafi’s campaign to get off the rogues’ list” The New York Times magazine, January 19. Libya is also featured in a new report by Human Rights Watch http://www.hrw.org/mideast/libya.php

Saudi Arabia has published details of internal reform proposals, calling for major reforms in the Arab world ahead of the next Arab summit in March. Saudi Arabia has set up an office to help repatriate the Saudi nationals captured in the US “war on terrorism”, including those detained inside the US, at Guantanamo Bay, and in Afghanistan, Pakistan and Chechnya.

In the occupied West Bank it was a bloody week. Two Palestinian gunmen killed one settler before being shot dead. Two gunmen were shot when trying to cross into Israel from Egypt. Two Palestinian men were shot dead during army operations using helicopter gun-ships. Two Palestinian children were killed when they attempted to infiltrate an Israeli settlement and Islamic Jihad member Raami Abu Bakr was killed as he attempted to fire a missile at an Israeli army fuel tanker. In another attack against a Jewish settlement, one Israeli was killed as well as one of the gunmen. Israel has closed down two West Bank universities.

7. South Asia

Afghanistan continues to struggle with internal security, and is having some success in bringing the regional warlords to the fold, even though attacks against foreign military forces seem to be increasing. A tape recorder bomb killed two people, but responsibility and even the intended victim are unknown. The UN Security Council unanimously approved monitoring procedures and sanctions to control remnants of the Taliban and al Qaeda. Training of the new Afghan National Army (largely made up of former militiamen) will be accelerated.

In Bangladesh, a bomb set off at a village festival killed seven.

Police in India’s Gujarat state killed Sadiq Jamaal, alleged member of Lashkar-e-Toiba, in a gunfight. He was said to be planning assassinations.

Separatist rebels of the Manipur People’s Liberation Front (MPLF) denied Indian security reports that they had taken over MPFL headquarters. Apparently fighting is still continuing. Meanwhile, negotiations to resolve the long-running conflict with the Nagas will start soon.

Indian-occupied Kashmir plans to set up a volunteer force of special police to target militant groups. They will use local knowledge and special training to fight separatist rebels. This would replace the Special Operations Group that had been guilty of widespread civilian atrocities.

Fighting in Nepal continues. In a recent security offensive, several civilians and more than a dozen rebels are reported killed.

Pakistan police defused a bomb planted in a Kentucky Fried Chicken restaurant toilet.

8. Cyberterrorism and Information Warfare

In the first issue of the IEEE’s new Security and Privacy journal, Simson Garfinkel and Abhi Shelat show how much information remains on discarded hard drives. http://www.computer.org/security/

The US Federal Trade Commission has filed injunctions in California, Maryland, Massachusetts, New York and Washington DC to prevent the marketing and sale of fake international drivers permits.

The American Civil Liberties Union has published a new report “’Big Brother’ is No Longer a Fiction”. Check out their materials on privacy and technology at http://www.aclu.org/Privacy/PrivacyMain.cfm

9. Finance

The UN Security Council unanimously approved a new resolution to improve the implementation of sanctions against Osama bin Laden, al Qaeda, the Taliban and their associates. This includes improving coordination and exchange of information to better fulfill the 1999 sanctions that include freezing of financial resources; an arms embargo and travel prohibitions.

Central African Republic is a diamond-smuggling hub according to a new report (http://action.web.ca/home/pac/attach/car_e.pdf) that cites close ties between arms dealers and diamond traders in DR Congo and CAR and says there is need for independent review and monitoring to prevent continued smuggling.

Another profitable smuggling item is tobacco. The World Health Organization has published draft text that will form the basis for negotiations on a treaty that will protect public health, including efforts to stop smuggling. (http://www.who.int/gb/fctc/E/E_inb6.htm)

Spanish authorities have dismantled a huge money-laundering ring after a 2-year investigation that netted over a hundred arrests. They have also uncovered a new automated teller machine fraud that used miniature cameras to copy identification numbers and substitute card readers to capture account numbers.

Banco Popular de Puerto Rico, one of the 50 largest US banks, has paid $21.6 million to avoid criminal prosecution for its failure to file Suspicious Activity Reports (SARs) on potential money laundering activities.

The US Treasury has published its final proposed rules to require mutual funds to file SARs. (http://www.ustreas.gov/press/releases/kd3765.htm)

10. Human Rights

There are now 25 countries whose male citizens over the age of 16 are required to register with the US Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS). This registration includes providing photographs and fingerprints and reporting their whereabouts, and is applied retroactively. For people already in the US, deadlines have been issued for these retroactive registrations. Men from Afghanistan, Algeria, Bahrain, Eritrea, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, North Korea, Oman, Qatar, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen have a new registration deadline of February 7. Men from Pakistan and Saudi Arabia must register by February 21. Men from Bangladesh, Egypt, Indonesia, Jordan and Kuwait, added to the list of registering nations, have until March 28. Of these countries, only North Korea is not predominantly Muslim. The targeted countries have strongly protested these arbitrary measures, particularly countries considered US allies in the “war on terror”. Some 1,200 of those going to register have been arrested and under current US policy may be held indefinitely without charge, council, or notification of relatives. Because of this, many countries, including neighboring Canada, have suggested postponing non-essential travel to the US. Adding insult to injury, the INS still does not have the information technology infrastructure necessary to manage this program.

Anti-terrorism legislation in the EU has been criticized in a parliamentary report for threatening human rights.

The European Court of Human Rights has agreed to hear six cases submitted by Chechens alleging abuse by Russian forces

Belgium plans to expand its war crimes law to allow foreign nationals to be tried in absentia. This would potentially allow the case against Israeli Prime Minister Sharon for his role in the Sabra and Shatila massacres of 1982 to proceed.

The UN Roma Human Development Report “Avoiding the Dependency Trap” says that living standards for the 4-5 million Roma in Europe live at levels comparable to that in Sub-Saharan Africa. http://www.ocean.sk.undp/

Gambia’s National Reconciliation Commission has begun hearing complaints filed regarding allegations of torture and murder during the military rule of former president Jerry Rawlings.

11. Law and Legal Issues

Marwan Barghouti, prominent Palestinian leader, will stand trial for murder after an Israeli court ruled that it does have jurisdiction despite being an elected member of the Palestinian parliament.

Mohammad Bashir (“Rizwan”) has been arrested in Pakistan on suspicion of his role in the suicide car bombing near the Sheraton Hotel last May.

“Kamel Bourgass” has been charged in British court with the murder of detective Stephen Oake as he attempted to arrest the suspect in connection with the alleged ricin plots.

James D. Brailey Jr, former leader of the US anti-government Jural Society, has been detained on firearms charges in Olympia Washington. It is possible he was involved in a plan to assassinate the Governor.

Bangladesh opposition leader Saber Hossain Chowdhury was freed after the High Court said he had been illegally imprisoned.

Guvanch Dzhumayev, members of his family and 28 other defendants were sentenced in Turkmenistan court in connection with the failed assassination attempt against President Niyazov. The trials have been widely compared to the Stalinist show trials of the 1930s.

Astrid Eyzaguirre and Osman Petmezci have been charged in German court for planning to bomb a US army base.

Samir Feddag, Mouloud Feddag, Mustapha Taleb and a 17-year old were charged in the UK under the Terrorism Act for allegedly plotting chemical attacks using ricin. Arrested at the same time, Nasreddine Fekhadji was charged for false documents, and two others were charged with immigration offenses.

Wadih El-Hage, Mohammed Saddiq Odeh, Mohammed Rashed Daoud al Owhali and Khalfan Khamis Mohamed, convicted in the 2001 trial of the 1998 African embassy bombings, have cited jury irregularities as the basis for granting a new trial.

Ali Imron and Mubarak were arrested in Indonesia in connection with the Bali bombing.

Thomas Irwin of Belfast, Northern Ireland, has been charged with providing a vehicle and replica handgun to use in connection with terrorism.

Mohammed Hamad al-Juwayed, a Kuwaiti soldier, has been arrested on charges of spying for Iraq.

Slobodan Milosevic’s trial on charges of war crimes has been postponed again because of his ill health.

Sheik Muhammad Ali Hassan al Mouyad and Muhammad Moshen Yahya Zayed, arrested in Germany in connection with possible al Qaeda membership, will be served with an extradition request from the US.

Abdella Ouzghar has been in Canadian court for an extradition hearing. He is wanted by French police for alleged terrorist connections.

Leon Peacock, Alan Rautenbach, and Hercules Viljoen, alleged members of the Israel Vision sect, have appeared in South African court charged with sabotage and weapons charges in connection with a planned “Night of Terror” to precipitate a rightwing coup.

Jose Padilla’s attorneys have again challenged his detention as an enemy combatant forbidden to consult his attorney. Mr. Padilla was not arrested on a battlefield, but instead on US soil.

Brian Regan, a retired US Air Force sergeant, is on trial in Virginia on charges of espionage on behalf of Iraq and others.

Rosemary Robb and Tammy Robb of Northern Ireland have denied explosives and firearms charges.

The Saville Inquiry into the events of Bloody Sunday, 1972, heard testimony from former UK Prime Minister Sir Edward Heath, who dismissed the notion that the killings had been part of a government plot. Testimony from General Sir Michael Rose, former SAS commander, testified they had been warned that the IRA would turn the march into a “bloodbath”.

Bernd Schompeter and Willi Heinz Ribbeck are on trial in Germany for alleged arms sales to Iraq.

Lawyers for attorney Lynne F. Stewart, charged with helping a terrorist client pass on messages, have filed a motion to dismiss all charges, saying her speech if protected under the first amendment, among other things. For the full brief see http://www.lynnestewart.org/legal.html

Jack Thomas, a former Australian taxi driver, has been detained in Pakistan on suspicion of connections with al Qaeda.

Ouyang Yi has been charged with trying to overthrow the government of China because of his use of the Internet and posting articles critical to the government. Amnesty International (http://www.amnesty.org) say that at least 33 other people have been detained for similar reasons.

12. Narco-terrorism

A special anti-drug unit in Mexico, the FEADS, will be shut down because of widespread corruption. Its 700 agents will be investigated for illegal activities.

Spanish authorities have dismantled a huge money-laundering ring after a 2-year investigation that netted over a hundred arrests and large quantities of cocaine and cash. It is believed that nearly a quarter million Euros were laundered from drug trafficking using bureaux de change.

13. Transportation

The US Federal Transit Administration has introduced the Transit Threat Level Response Recommendation that follows the warning system initiated by the Office of Homeland Security. http://transit-safety.volpe.dot.gov/security/SecurityInitiatives/ThreatLevel/default.asp

Ann Davis points out “Still No Background Checks for Truckers, port Employees: A key issue for all sides is what should disqualify someone from holding a sensitive job?” in The Wall Street Journal, December 31

14. Weapons of Mass Destruction

For a survey of the state of the nuclear arms race, see Serge Schemann’s article “Nuclear War Strategists Rethink the Unthinkable” The New York Times, January 19

Russia is in discussions regarding construction of a nuclear power plant in Syria.

The UK is exporting dual-use equipment to Iran that can be used in land mines despite their own embargo.

Greenpeace activists broke into the Sizewell B nuclear power station to demonstrate how easy it would be for terrorists to gain access.

15. Recently Published

FEATURE ARTICLE: The Algerian Connection (part I)

On March 27, 2002 The Salafist Group for Call and Combat (a/k/a GSPC; a/k/a Le Groupe Salafiste Pour La Prediction Et Le Combat; a/k/a Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat; a/k/a GSPC; a/k/a Da’awa wal Djihad; a/k/a Appeal and Struggle) joined Armed Islamic Group (a/k/a Al-Jama’ah Al-Islamiyah, Al-Musallah; a/k/a GIA; a/k/a Groupement Islamique Arme) on the list of Specially Designated Nationals and Foreign Terrorist Organizations. Once separated by internal policy disagreements, they have been reunited on the list of indicted terrorist organizations.

On January 5, 2003, traces of the highly toxic poison ricin were found in an apartment in London, England. Ten days into the following investigation, a police officer was stabbed to death in Manchester, England. Who was responsible? -- Algerians with connections to the GSPC.

This 2-part series follow these threads from the beginning. Part I this week gives the background and Part II next week looks at the international linkages.

Algeria is a large country, more than three times the size of Texas. The Sahara desert covers most of this area, with population centers on the Mediterranean coast. Berbers inhabited Algeria until the Arab conquest in the 7th century. Berbers have stayed in the mountains, maintaining their language and culture, and now comprise about a third of the population.

In 1830, France began more than a century of rule. The struggle for independence began in 1954, led by the National Liberation Front (FNL) and independence was finally achieved in 1962, with Ahmed Ben Bella the first president. Ben Bella was overthrown by Colonel Houari Boumedienne in 1965, pledging an end to corruption, the FLN as the only party, and Islam as the state religion.

Algeria’s economy is largely dependent on oil and gas, and when those prices fell in the 1980s, there were strikes and violent demonstrations motivated by the economic conditions. In 1989, the national assembly approved multi-party elections, licensing nearly two dozen new parties. The Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) was founded and became the leading opposition party, on a platform favoring Islamic rule over military rule.

The first multiparty local elections were held in 1990 and in the first general elections the next year the FIS won a surprising victory. In response, the military took over. Thus began a decade of armed conflict and military rule.

More than 100,000 people, mostly civilians, have been killed since this conflict began.

FIS was banned and dismantled. Its armed wing, the Islamic Salvation Army (AIS) remained, operating in secret. But it was the smaller, militant Armed Islamic Group (GIA) that dominated the opposition to the military rulers. GIA was believed responsible for the assassination of the first military president, Boudiaf. Other dissident groups and the Berbers were also active in pursuing their political aims, often using violent means since the political alternatives were violently repressed amid notorious human rights abuses, including civilian massacres undertaken by the military.

Change began after the former foreign minister Abdelaziz Bouteflika was elected president (unopposed) in 1999. He began negotiations with the AIS and pardoned thousands of AIS members and other banned groups. The FIS and AIS formally disbanded at this time, taking advantage of this amnesty. FIS founder Abdel Kader Omar fled to Europe.

The smaller militant groups and the Berbers were largely excluded from Bouteflika’s efforts but after bloody riots in spring of 2001, the government agreed to a series of cultural and political demands on the part of the Berbers. Even after these efforts, the government continues to draw criticisms of human rights abuses, including a tightly restricted media, dozens of media employees killed (mostly by Islamic militants), and continued civilian massacres. Elections last June were won again by the FLN, but were marred by violence and an opposition boycott.

The continued violence takes place between a secretive and self-sufficient army supporting a regime that lacks legitimacy, and an expanding horizon of Islamic radicals whose movement attracts popular support, even while civilians are constantly trapped in the cross-fire.

The FIS -- and almost all Algerians -- are Sunni Muslim, which is also the state religion. (Around one percent is Christian or Jewish.) Militant groups study the Salafi ideas of Muslim, interpreting the Koran literally and wanting to revert to a pure form of Islam. These beliefs are shared with Saudi Arabia, members of al Qaeda and others.

With FIS and AIS both disbanded and disenfranchised, the ground was cleared for the dominance of hard-line groups, notably the GIA and GSPC.

GIA conducted massive terrorist campaigns against civilians from 1992-1998, even wiping out entire villages. They targeted and killed more than 100 foreigners, mostly Europeans, favoring shootings, car bombs, kidnapping, and throat-cutting. In 1994, they hijacked Air France flight 8969 to Algiers and attempted (unsuccessfully) to blow up the Eiffel Tower. In 1995, they conducted a series of bombings in France that killed seven and injured more than 100. After this, they concentrated on massacres of civilians inside Algeria.

Antar Zouabri was one of the founders of GIA and its longest-serving leader, from 1996 until February 2002 when he was killed by Algerian security forces in a gun battle. Rachid Abou Tourab has taken his place.

The GIA’s targeting of civilians and differences in religious interpretation led to internal conflict. Hassan Hattab (a/k/a Abu Hamza, Abu Hamzeh), a senior GIA official left to form the GSPC. Hattab is thought to be the last remaining hard-line rebel leader still living in Algeria

GSPC is now considered a far bigger threat than GIA. GSPC says they prefer military and government targets, but have been accused of planning an attack against the high-profile Paris-Dakar Road Rally in 2000 and claimed responsibility for killing the Berber singer Matoub Lounes n 1998. Nonetheless, their specialty is the road block ambush. They have also raided military, police and government convoys. Civilians are often caught in the middle of these attacks, though GSPC prefers not to take credit for civilian deaths, unlike the GIA.

GIA and GSPC began as local militant organizations, whose aim was to replace the military government with conservative Islamic rule. But the thousands of members who were trained in this doctrine and in military and terrorist tactics have spread around the world. Algeria is believed to be the third largest supplier of al Qaeda members. 

Next week, in Part II, we take a look at the international linkages.

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